Immediate and short term complications
- Severe pain during the procedure and healing
- Shock can be caused by pain and/or haemorrhage
- Excessive bleeding (haemorrhage) and septic shock have been documented
- Difficulty in passing urine, and also passing of faeces, can occur due to swelling, oedema and pain
- Infections may spread after the use of contaminated instruments and during the healing period
- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) due to the use of the same surgical instrument without sterilization
- Death can be caused by haemorrhage or infections, including tetanus and shock
- Psychological consequences due to the pain, shock and the use of physical force by those performing the procedure
- Unintended labia fusion following Type 2 FGM
Long-term complications
- Chronic pain due to trapped or unprotected nerve endings
- Infections particularly of the reproductive and urinary tracts
- Keloid which is excessive scar tissue formed at the site of the cutting
- Increased risk of HIV infection and transmission in adulthood due to an increased risk for bleeding during intercourse
- Impaired quality of sexual life due to reduced sexual sensitivity, pain during sex, scar formation, and pain and traumatic memories associated with the procedure
- Menstrual problems
- Birth complications such as prolonged labour, recourse to caesarean section, postpartum haemorrhage, tearing and recourse to episiotomies
- Danger to the new-born with higher death rates and reduced Apgar scores
- Psychological consequences such as fear of sexual intercourse, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression and memory loss